Organizational Design At Microsoft Essay -- essays research papers

ntroduction The ongoing case study presented by Microsoft and the scrutiny of the Justice Department and Congress serves as an excellent departure point to establish the nature and premises of organizational theory and design since it allows for examination from both the viewpoint of the public and the economic aspects of the situation in which Microsoft finds itself. While issues of organizational structure and corporate policies as related to costs, revenue, profit and market structure are inherent in the study of any company or organization, it is important to recognize the unique aspects of Microsoft. Microsoft, undeniably, has a larger presence throughout the computer software industry and the users of its many products since its operating system defines, to a great degree, how work is done in the modern business world. With a company that has virtually always been in a "near-monopoly" situation such as Microsoft, it comes as no surprise that there are many who believe the company should be split into two (or more) independent organizations. However, that has little to do with the organizational design reality that actually is the Microsoft Corporation. Most companies grew out of their perpetual search for profit and how to make that profit grow bigger each year and Bill Gates and Microsoft are certainly no exception to that rule. In fact, they are the personification of the rule! Such a determined search for ever-increasing profits has resulted in large, vertically integrated organizations. But it is essential to keep in mind the fact that economic growth does not end in profit accumulation. In the case of the computer and software industry, growth came in the form of reliance on external economies, that is, keeping apace with the technological progress of other companies in the same industry rather than each company going its own way. Microcomputer companies that remain active to this day are the ones that view computers as open ended machines, ready to be upgraded and improved from time to time, at pace with the current technology advances. Again, Microsoft presents the definitive example of such a company. Organizational Design for the 21st Century Any business or business process has had to face a certain level of re-engineering or reconstruction in order to fit into the managerial revolution of the 1990s and the move into the 21st cent... ...loyees and grand plans for the future. For both start-up ventures and existing firms, entrepreneurship carried on in the pursuit of business opportunities spurs business expansion, technological progress, and wealth creation. The Connor Model would certainly verify that fundamental fact. In order to adequately plan for the future, especially in terms of making the appropriate organization design plans for the future, Microsoft has had to broaden its collective understanding of information and other aspects associated with non-bureaucratic organizational design in order to appropriately commit to the ideas Connor advocates. Clearly, the current changes in organizational environments, are disturbing the century-long domination of the bureaucratic organization but a company such as Microsoft has not had to deal with such hidebound "traditions." However, it is also important that it not allow itself to be "married to" the unique traditions and processes it has established. Considering the past performance and accomplishments of the company, regardless of decisions made by the government, it is likely Microsoft will continue to evolve in ways that assure its success

The Debate

Catrin, a schoolgirl, 15 years of age enters. â€Å"My mind just gives me a headache! Why cant life just be simple, with no worries, yeah, I'm talking to you up there. You know what I'm saying! Why cant you give me some thanks once in a while. I'm still alive, I think I deserve some gratification for that, don't you think? It's really hard work living with that evil brother of mine and putting up with mum's winging, but I'm sure you know that, because your always watching over me, apparently. Don't you get bored up there watching everyone all day? (Sits down to think) I wonder what it's like up there, you know, in heaven? I don't suppose I'll ever go there anyway, because I'm a naughty girl, really. My mum has said it so many times that I'm starting to believe it! Mind you I'm not as naughty as my brother, my naughtiness is just fun and harmless, but I'm sure that my brother has malice in his naughtiness! He plays his shooting games on the computer as if he were actually enjoying blowing somebody's brains out! Sick, really sick, I always annoy him by chanting, â€Å"You're a mental psychopathic murderer!† And then his eyes glow a fierce red and my legs start to quiver and my brain hurts because its ashamed of the mistake it has just done. My mum seems to always stop the fighting just before it gets going; she has this talent, after all that's what parents are for! (Gets up and puts her hand on her head, moving position every now and then) Oh, why does life have to be so unfair! Why can't I win the lottery or become famous? I would absolutely love to be the next Faith Hill or the next Madonna, but there's no hope I suppose, after all I'm hopeless! I can't sing to save my life! I'm useless, let's face it brain. I'm thinking whether to sit (and be a swot) and work or sit and be a couch potato and watch telly all night? Such a hard decision, isn't it brain. What shall I do? My conscience says ‘Cats, sit and write with pride your English homework!' While the devil inside me says ‘Cats man, live life to the full, chill and relax in front of the box!' My head hurts and it feels as if its been torn in two, oh! ‘Chill', ‘Work!' ‘Chill', ‘Work!' Oh god, help! Ok, let's try a different approach. What would mum want me to do? She would definitely want me to do my homework; she always says how important my education is, just because she wasted hers as a child. My answer to her is that you learn from your mistakes, and so if I make a mistake and waste my education, then I'll learn! Clever isn't it! Well-done brain! (Sits with legs crossed, leaning back on the chair) I wonder if other people sit and debate their lives with themselves like I do. Maybe I'm the only one, I could be famous and I don't know it! Imagine the headlines ‘Girl debates with her own brain!' Wow, what a thought! What was I thinking of before going off on some wild tangent? Ah, yes I remember, am I to do my homework or go and watch telly, I still haven't decided! I know, I'll try another different approach, what would Grandma want me to do? Definitely, without a doubt she would want me to do my homework. That's two against one, now! Ok, what would my friends want me to do? They would say go and watch the telly, much more educational in their view. Now it's all-square again, mum and grandma against my friends and me! Oh, why cant life just be simple! I know I'll just go to bed!

Should Hate Groups Be Allowed Free Speech - 725 Words

From the century-old Ku Klux Klan to the widely publicized Westboro Baptist Church, hate groups have always been prevalent in America. They have been around since humans have had the ability to share and act upon common hatred towards others. Why do they still exist today even after all the progress our society has made fighting against racism and intolerance? The answer lies in the First Amendment right to free speech. Our democratic society allows all citizens the freedom to express any and all opinions, no matter how offensive and hurtful. This leads many to question whether these hate groups should be allowed the right to free speech. I believe that hate groups should be allowed free speech because all Americans have the right of free speech, it is not discriminatory unless it incites violence, and hate can be prevented through education rather than criminalization. Hate groups are known to protest against otherwise agreeable opinions through rallies and speeches. The Westboro Ba ptist Church is known for picketing funerals, however they have never physically assaulted the people they hate, even when argued with by opposing bystanders. What they do may seem immoral, but it is not a crime to express an opinion. Their opinions and those of other hate groups are protected by the First Amendment which â€Å"should protect such expressions when they†¦do not present danger of an immediate breach of peace† (Attias). This was established in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) in which theShow MoreRelatedFree Speech And Freedom Of Speech1145 Words   |  5 PagesHate speech is not free speech due to the fact that it is unconstitutional. Free speech is not speech free from consequences. When we choose to express ourselves, we also choose to accept the consequences of that speech. An example of why hate speech is not free speech is because it can violate certain freedom of speech like slander and libel. Another example would be like a specific individual starts usi ng fighting words against someone and that someone starts fighting that specific being. ThatRead MoreSpeech On The Bill Of Rights1153 Words   |  5 Pagesrespecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press† (Alderman and Kennedy, pg.21). Because of the First Amendment, hate speech, â€Å"no matter how offensive its content†, was â€Å"protected† under the laws (ACLZ). However, people are still demanding more. They want hate-related speech to be allowed on campuses –without knowing the effects and the damage it could do. Hate speech could bring people down, lower their confidences andRead MoreThe Harm In Hate Speech Analysis1101 Words   |  5 Pagesargues in favor of hate speech restrictions in his book â€Å"The Harm in Hate Speech†. He presents the central argument that vulnerable minorities are in need of hate speech regulation to protect them from harm. Another argument he presents is that such regulation must be a content-based regulation, as opposed to a time, place, and manner restriction that is usually employed to prevent certain kinds of speech. A final argument he uses is that speech is the harmful action, rather than speech simply causingRead MoreThe Misconception Of Hate Groups902 Words   |  4 Pages The Misconception of Hate Groups Introduction-Did you know that the Ku Klux Klan (a white supremacist hate group) resides in about 22 states and counting. There are many hate groups all over the U.S. that cause a lot of violence which may lead to death and many injuries. And when these hate groups get out of hand, this can lead to property damage to. If an incident like Charlottesville, is big enough, this cause a lot of tension between political officials and parties. With these recent eventsRead MoreFree Speech And Hate Speech1000 Words   |  4 Pagesbetween hate and free speech is, and what the first amendment does to control them both. The first amendment states that congress shall make no law that abridges the freedom of speech. But to what extent should language be protected? The rights of one man should reach until they shadow over another’s. Meaning free speech is protected until it violates the rights of another. Hate speech is the line where free speech becomes unconstitutional. The contrast betw een free speech and hate speech is a heavilyRead MoreWe Must Stop Hate Speech1709 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the turbulent tides of the 2016 election, the question of whether or not hate speech is protected under the First Amendment has been brought up multiple times. Hate speech is defined by the American Bar Association as â€Å"speech that offends, threatens, or insults groups, based on race, color, religion, national origin, sexual orientation, disability, or other traits.† One side argues that hateful comments should not and are not protected due to the oppression they bring. After all, why wouldRead MorePersuasive Essay On Hate Speech1612 Words   |  7 Pages In the name of free speech, hate speech should not be tolerated. Hate speech has devastating effects on the people and communities it is targeted at. Left unchecked hate speech can lead to harmful and violent effects. Over the past few years, the effects of hate speech used on women, homosexuals, ethnic group s and religious minorities have become more and more apparent. Hate speech can be very divisive in many of the situations it is used, depending on who interprets the expression can vary howRead MoreEssay on On the Issue of Hate Speech1193 Words   |  5 PagesAlmost all Americans today have heard of the First Amendment and its protection of free speech. This protection allows a free exchange of ideas among the members of society. Without it, Americans would not be able to voice their criticisms against anything without having a fear of being arrested. However, in the past, the government has limited this fundamental right several times. During World War I, Charles Schenck passed out fliers criticizing the national draft. He was arrested, and the SupremeRead MoreHate Speech1536 Words   |  7 PagesHate Speech Essay In the first amendment of the United States constitution, American citizens are guaranteed the right to free speech. This is a fundamental right of American law, and one of the foundations of the U.S. Constitution. It is also the breeding ground for one of the most widely debated issues in America: What, if any, measures should be put into place to regulate hateful language? Most people will agree under one definition or another that hate speech is a socially deviant activityRead MoreImportance Of Freedom Of Speech914 Words   |  4 PagesFree Speech Should be Limited Everyone has the right to freedom of speech, but when there is freedom of speech without limits or restrictions, there is no doubt that this will lead to disaster. People will surely benefit if we are able balance between freedom of speech and restrictions to ensure that society can communicate and prosper without anarchy. The first amendment for freedom of speech can be a good thing and a bad thing if left to free. An important lesson that a young woman learned when

Examine the different ways Fitzgerald represents men’s...

Plan for English essay- 1500 words (375 words per paragraph) -underline every time title is used. POINT 1: Women are treated like objects TS: Fitzgerald uses many different techniques throughout the novel to show that women are a product of their men and are objectified by society. QUOTES: - Tom buys Daisy the pearl necklace before their wedding â€Å"he gave her a string of pearls valued at three hundred and fifty thousand dollars† and Myrtle a dog leash â€Å"a small, expensive dog-leash, made of leather and braided silver.† - Tom buys Myrtle a dog (a dog is a mans servant) â€Å"here’s your money. Go and buy 10 more dogs with it†, shows worthlessness of the dogs to Tom (relevance to Myrtle). (Other viewpoint) Giacomo and Michael â€Å"On the†¦show more content†¦- Tom doesn’t believe Jordan is capable of looking after herself â€Å"Nick’s going to look after her, aren’t you Nick?† - Nick says never trust a woman â€Å"dishonesty in a woman is something you can never blame too deeply.†- You should expect women to lie, they don’t know any better. - Nick implies Myrtle’s personality changes because of her appearance change- she can’t think for herself and needs the clothing â€Å"with the influence of the dress her personality had undergone a change†. -Tom believes Daisy can’t make her own mind up â€Å"sometimes she gets foolish ideas in her head and doesn’t know what she’s doing† TCIRT: - â€Å"if theyre sort of stupid, you fall half in love with them† presumes girls are stupid. - â€Å"I spent the whole night necking with a terrible phony named Anne Louise Sherman.† CONTEXT: Fitzgerald’s personal view of women, quote â€Å"Women are so weak, really – emotionally unstable – and their nerves, when strained, break . . . this is a man’s world.† POINT 3: Men take advantage of and use women, however women accept it. TS: In the novel, there is a strong correlation between men romanticizing their woman, and men using and taking advantage of their women. This is shown through various factors. QUOTES: - Daisy knows that Tom is having

Nurture Strongly Influences Early Human Development

Roshan Akthar Jahir Hussain 200821027 Nurture strongly influences early human development Introduction While nature produces healthy, well-formed infants, nurture helps in developing them in the early stages of their lives through practice and experience. It means that the early development of a human is effective and faster by nurture than what comes out of nature. All children go through the same sequences of growth and development in the same order right from their mother’s womb, be it the development of parts of the body and the development of organs, motor development after birth, development of speech, etc.. Nature leads to ordinary development of a fetus into a human but it cannot develop an infant into a healthy-minded or†¦show more content†¦can affect normal maturation of a fetus. So, it can be clearly noted from above that a fetus can be completely organized and well-developed only when given quality nurturing. Influence of genetics and environment on the motor development of a child after birth All children go through the same sequence of motor behaviors in the same order but they go through the sequence at different rates. It is because those children who are not given attention or taken good of (nurtured) are seen to develop in a slower rate than those who are given quality nurture. Even if a child is born physically challenged, he/she can be trained or given physiotherapy treatment to improve him/her to at least take care of their own selves. This clearly illustrates that practice and experience makes a child to learn things faster and in a much better way than those children who are left unnoticed. Genetic and environmental influence on a child’s development of speech All human infants learn to speak in the course of normal development, but not until they have attained a certain level of neurological development. It is applicable for both, children who are given as well as children who are given quality nurture. As we already discussed on the motor development of a child after birth, even here, in the case of development of speech of a child, the fact isShow MoreRelatedThe Debate On Nature Versus Nurture Essay969 Words   |  4 Pagesfoundation on the house, but time and place determine its form† (Fraser). The debate on nature versus Nurture has been a mystery for years now, constantly begging the question on what has a greater effect on the human development of humans. Is human behavior, ideas, and feelings innate or are they learned over time. Nature, or genetic influences, are formed before birth and shaped through early experiences. Genes are viewed as long and complicated chains that are present thought life and developRead MoreThe Eff ect Of Environmental And Genetics On The Development Of A Person1000 Words   |  4 Pageshistory of psychology is the debate of whether or not ones environment or genetic background plays more of a role in the development of a person. Both nature and nurture have been proven to play an important role in one’s development. Nature is what we think of as pre-wiring and is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors. Nurture is generally taken as the influence of external factors after conception e.g. the product of exposure, experience and learning on an individual. ThroughoutRead MoreThe Scopes Of Psychological Health913 Words   |  4 PagesScience is not always used to appreciate a mother’s love. It is usually viewed as a natural act of kindness and care embedded in the natural instincts of a caretaker, but is it be essential to child development? â€Å"A mother’s (caretaker’s) love in infancy and childhood is as important for menta l health as are vitamins and proteins for physical health† is a quote that raises controversy amongst the way psychologists and the theories they believe in. Some psychological theorists argue about how influentialRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture : A Debate Within Psychology1344 Words   |  6 Pages1 Kaeezs Mark Lee F. Tonda PSY 100 Nature Vs. Nurture There s a debate within psychology about whether certain aspects of behavior are genetic or learned characteristics. Certain physical characteristics are genetic, like color of eyes, hair type, and skin color. Other things like driving, talking, or tying your shoes are learned. People wonder if personality and mental abilities are genetic or learned. There are good arguments for both the nurture, and nature side of these three issues: intelligenceRead MoreThe Psychological Characteristics Of Breast Cancer1406 Words   |  6 Pagesinheritance. Color of eyes, straight or curly hair, pigmentation of the skin and certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea) are all a function of the genes we inherit. Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents. Height, weight, hair loss (in men), life expectancy and vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women) are positively correlated between genetically related individualsRead MoreWhat Drives A Person Insane? Serial Killers997 Words   |  4 Pagesare created, not born. It has been confirmed that a person’s early years are vital in the development of a child’s brain (Kirouac, McBride, 2009). As a baby, brain development is reliant on its environment (Kirouac, McBride, 2009). A young child’s brain behaves like a sponge; it absorbs details through observing their surroundings (Kirouac, McBride, 2009). The surroundings of a serial killer as an infant can greatly influence the way they go about their life and their style of killing. ExperiencesRead MoreThe Debate Of Nature And Nurture1771 Words   |  8 Pagesthe debate of nature and nurture is one of the oldest debates in the history of psychology. The argument between the two is concerned w ith whether behavior is inherited or acquired. Nature is behavior that is genetically inherited. Nature is thought of as pre-wiring because it is believed that we inherit our genes from our parents, therefore, our traits are directly linked to our behavior. Nurture on the other hand is behavior that is learned or acquired over time. Nurture is thought of as behaviorismRead MoreAlcoholism823 Words   |  4 Pagesalcoholic tendencies of a parent, does that put him at more of a risk to develop the disease himself? Theodore Jacob and Sheri Johnson, authors of Parenting Influences on the Development of Alcohol Abuse and Dependence believe this to be true. It is now well established that the family environment, and particularly parenting effects, strongly influence a child s risk of alcohol abuse and dependence.  (Jacob amp; Johnson 204) If this proves true, it could be a step forward as to where research shouldRead MoreChild Development: Heredity and Environment1240 Words   |  5 Pagesversus nurture or even environment versus heredity leads to the question of: does the direct environment or the nature surrounding an adolescent directly influence acts of delinquency, later progressing further into more radical crimes such as murder or psychotic manifestation, or is it directly linked to the hereditary traits and genes passed down from that individual adolescent’s biological parents? To answer this question one must first understand the difference between nature, nurture, environmentRead MoreHuman Growth and Development Study Guide Ch 1,2,31678 Words   |  7 PagesHuman Growth Development Chapters 1, 2, 3 Study Guide Chapter 1 1. What is meant by discontinuous and continuous development? Continuous development is a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with. Discontinuous development is a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times. Broken down, Continuous means infants/preschoolers respond much like adults do and Discontinuous means they have their own

Detention Centres free essay sample

The issue of Detention centres and whether or not there uses are necessary to protect our nation is a subject of great debate. This issue seems to fall into a moral grey area, as not having them would be morally wrong in that we would be letting anyone from anywhere into our country thus leaving unchecked entries of possible terrorists and other sorts of plausible threats. But having them still, at the same time, falls into this moral grey spot. The reason that these detention centres exist is because people that occupy Australia’s land without a visa are illegal immigrants and therefore subject to lawful inquiries, while these inquiries are made the person/people that are in question are transported to a detention centre technically out of Australia. They are ‘detained’ (supposedly for a short amount of time) until it is decided whether or not they are refugees and if so whether they shall enter Australia or a 3rd country can be found that will accept them. We will write a custom essay sample on Detention Centres or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The use of detention is controversial because opponents argue it is wrong to imprison or restrict the movements of people who have committed no crime, and in many cases, people who have come to the UK to escape persecution. Those detained and their advocates have frequently complained about the conditions inside detention centres and the treatment of detainees by staff. With this taken into account, one must also remember that Detention Centres are a major process component for how our nation manages immigration.According to the Australian Government Department of Immigration and Citizenship; there are seven key values that a detention centre must run by, set by the minister of immigration and citizenship from 2008. These values being: 1. Mandatory detention is an essential component of strong border control. 2. To support the integrity of Australias immigration program, three groups will be subject to mandatory detention: a. all unauthorised arrivals, for management of health, identity and security risks to the community b. unlawful non-citizens who present unacceptable risks to the community and c.Unlawful non-citizens who have repeatedly refused to comply with their visa conditions. 3. Children, including juvenile foreign fishers and, where possible, their families, will not be detained in an immigration detention centre (IDC). 4. Detention that is indefinite or otherwise arbitrary is not acceptable and the length and conditions of detention, including the appropriateness of both the accommodation and the services provided, would be subject to regular review. 5. Detention in immigration detention centres is only to be used as a last resort and for the shortest practicable time. . People in detention will be treated fairly and reasonably within the law. 7. Conditions of detention will ensure the inherent dignity of the human person. Amnesty international, a major leader in fighting for detention centre abolishment, argues the point that it is not illegal to seek asylum in Australia. And I argue that no one ever said it was illegal, the asylum seekers that come looking for a new home are merely subject to lawful enquiries, and detention centres are merely part of the security process.Amnesty also publicly argues that the amount of refugees arriving by boat that have been terrorists is in fact, zero. This argument seems flawed in that, in the past people claiming to be refugees have been sent to detention centres and had background checks, and in many cases it has been found that they have provided incorrect information and have been deported to a separate country. Another threat from underdeveloped countries is an abnormally high amount of contagious diseases; these diseases can be found and possibly even cured in detention centres, therefore reducing another possible negative effect on Australia. Diseases from South Africa are especially disconcerting, as a large amount of immigrants can contain aids, small pox, malaria and a number of other infectious diseases for which Australians are currently routinely vaccinated against. In addition to this, these people also receive medical treatment for their illnesses whilst in the detention centre, this helps prevent the spread of contagious diseases throughout the Australian population. It is a well documented fact that Australia itself is a terrorist target area.According to the Australian government department of foreign affairs and trade, Australia is publicly and ‘frequently’ threatened by Al Qaida leaders. In fact, Australia has been referred to in six separate statements issued by Osama bin laden with his intentions clear on where he stands on western nations. This possible threat from people or groups of people means that Australia as a nation needs to take certain precautions as a security measure to stop possib le threats of terrorists; one of these security measures is detention centres.Whilst these security measures do provide a certain amount of protection, they’re not completely 100% as sometimes people that have bad intentions at heart still do make it through. In one case a man had left the centre for not even 2 days and was arrested for rape. The problems that arise from detention centres, is that often the occupants can be stuck inside the detention centre for a number of years, as the system is slow in processing information about people.This would not be so bad, but, in many of the refugee cases the people involved do not have the language skills to understand that what they are doing by entering Australia is wrong, is their ignorance worth putting them in a prison-like environment for a long period of time? Especially if they came here seeking refuge. Also, until 2004, the immigration amendment did not give regulations dependant on age, so unknowing children of families seeking refuge got exactly the same kind of treatment as their parents that brought them over.The treatment of the children was far from a ‘necessary evil’ to protect our nation; they held no threat at all. Inside the detention centres, staff morale is of ten very low, due to the isolation that the jobs bring on, this in turn had an effect on the occupants of the centre. Leading to discrimination, acts of violence and in some cases people have literally ‘gone missing’. Another of the ‘evils’ that is shown by detention centres, is that; the treatment of refugees from other countries is seen unfair given their circumstances for coming to Australia.They come expecting welcome and freedom but instead they receive a (supposedly) hostile jail-like environment that they can be kept in for a number of years. Now, these detention centres act as a filtering system for the immigrants that are not actually seeking refuge, but hold a certain amount of threat towards our country, these people must be handpicked out of the crowd so that they do not cause any damage to the wellbeing of Australia. People that are looking for a new place to work inside Australia are also considered a threat to Australia, whilst this may seem harsh let me explain.The problem with this is that if people from 3rd world countries want to seek a workplace inside Australia, then the amount of jobs for Australians would be less and therefore negatively affect us and our natio n. With all these factors in play, Detention Centres do still seem to ultimately aid our border control in a way that is unmatchable by other modern methods. Without them we would be building the security of our nation on the trust between such groups as Al Qaeda and us, the westerners. A flaw that could potentially be catastrophic for Australia and its inhabitants.

Two Years After The Death Of Mao Zedong In 1976, It Became Essays

Two years after the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, it became apparent to many of China's leaders that economic reform was necessary. During his tenure as China's premier, Mao had encouraged social movements such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution which had had as their bases ideologies such as serving the people and maintaining the class struggle. By 1978 "Chinese leaders were searching for a solution to serious economic problems produced by Hua Guofeng, the man who had succeeded Mao Zedong as CCP leader after Mao's death" (Shirk 35). Hua had demonstrated a desire to continue the ideologically based movements of Mao. Unfortunately, these movements had left China in a state where "agriculture was stagnant, industrial production was low, and the people's living standards had not increased in twenty years" (Nathan 200). This last area was particularly troubling. While "the gross output value of industry and agriculture increased by 810 percent and national income grew by 420 percent [between 1952 and 1980] ... average individual income increased by only 100 percent" (Ma Hong quoted in Shirk 28). However, attempts at economic reform in China were introduced not only due to some kind of generosity on the part of the Chinese Communist Party to increase the populace's living standards. It had become clear to members of the CCP that economic reform would fulfill a political purpose as well since the party felt, properly it would seem, that it had suffered a loss of support. As Susan L. Shirk describes the situation in The Political Logic of Economic Reform in China, restoring the CCP's prestige required improving economic performance and raising living standards. The traumatic experience of the Cultural Revolution had eroded popular trust in the moral and political virtue of the CCP. The party's leaders decided to shift the base of party legitimacy from virtue to competence, and to do that they had to demonstrate that they could deliver the goods. (23) This movement "from virtue to competence" seemed to mark a serious departure from orthodox Chinese political theory. Confucius himself had posited in the fifth century BCE that those individuals who best demonstrated what he referred to as moral force should lead the nation. Using this principle as a guide, China had for centuries attempted to choose at least its bureaucratic leaders by administering a test to determine their moral force. After the Communist takeover of the country, Mao continued this emphasis on moral force by demanding that Chinese citizens demonstrate what he referred to as "correct consciousness." This correct consciousness could be exhibited, Mao believed, by the way people lived. Needless to say, that which constituted correct consciousness was often determined and assessed by Mao. Nevertheless, the ideal of moral force was still a potent one in China even after the Communist takeover. It is noteworthy that Shirk feels that the Chinese Communist Party leaders saw economic reform as a way to regain their and their party's moral virtue even after Mao's death. Thus, paradoxically, by demonstrating their expertise in a more practical area of competence, the leaders of the CCP felt they could demonstrate how they were serving the people. To be sure, the move toward economic reform came about as a result of a "changed domestic and international environment, which altered the leadership's perception of the factors that affect China's national security and social stability" (Xu 247). But Shirk feels that, in those pre-Tienenmen days, such a move came about also as a result of an attempt by CCP leaders to demonstrate, in a more practical and thus less obviously ideological manner than Mao had done, their moral force. This is not to say that the idea of economic reform was embraced enthusiastically by all members of the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party in 1978. To a great extent, the issue of economic reform became politicized as the issue was used as a means by Deng Xiaoping to attain the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party. Mao's successor, Hua Guofeng, had "tried to prove himself a worthy successor to Mao by draping himself in the mantle of Maoist tradition. His approach to economic development was orthodox Maoism with an up-to-date, international twist" (Shirk 35). This approach was tied heavily to the development of China's oil reserves. "[W]hen [in 1978] estimates of the oil reserves were revised downward[,] commitments to import plants and expand heavy industry could not be sustained" (Shirk 35). Deng took advantage of this economic crisis to discredit Hua and aim for leadership of the party. "Reform policies became Deng's platform against Hua for post-Mao leadership" (Shirk 36). Given this history of